Quran and Science

 

Science and Islam

 

Islam is a system of life that originated from the Allah, the Creator. Allah is the One who created man, life, and the universe and subjected man to the physical laws that He imposed on the universe. The Qur'an, as revealed to Muhammad SAW, directs man to think and study the physical world in order to understand the reality and to appreciate more the greatness of the Creator.

Many verses in the Qur'an point to the physical world and explain natural phenomena, as a confirmation for humanity that this revelation came from the Creator. Some of these explanations could not be understood at the time of the revelation because mankind did not have the tools that are taken for granted in modem times, such as the microscope, X-rays and so on.  lt is only during the last hundred years that some of these explanations became understood as a result of advances in Science.

The examples in the Qur'an are many and range from the creation of the universe down to the fertilization of the egg by the sperm. It will suffice here just to quote few of these verses.

 

"Verily! In the creation of the heavens and the earth, and in the alternation of night and day, and the ships which sail through the sea with that which is of use to mankind, and the rain which Allah sends down from the sky and makes the earth alive there with after its death, and the moving (living) creatures of all kinds that He scatters therein, and in the veering of winds and clouds which are held between the sky and the earth, are indeed proofs for people of understanding." [Translation of the meaning of the Qur'an, 2: 164]

 

And

"Verily, in cattle there is a lesson for you. We give you to drink of what is inside their bodies, coming from a conjunction between the contents of the intestines and blood, a milk pure and pleasant for those who drink it. "[Translation of the meaning of the Qur'an, 16:66]

And

"Do you not see that Allah has made subservient to you what so ever is in the earth, and the ships that sail through the sea by His command? He with holds the heaven from falling on the earth except by His Leave. Verily, Allah is. for mankind. full of Kindness, Most Merciful.  [Translation of the meaning of the Qur'an, 22:65]

 

And,

"Then We placed him as (a drop) sperm in a place of rest, firmly fixed. Then we made the sperm into a thing which clings (to the womb), then of that thing We made a (fetus) lump, then We made out of that lump, bones and clothed the bones with flesh, then We developed out of it another creature. So blessed be Allah, the perfect Creator. "[Translation of the meaning of the Qur 'an, 23: 13-14]

 

Although Qur'an points to the physical world to make people think, and it encourages people to discover physical laws, the Qur'an is not a book of science. Rather, it came to organize human relationships with the self, with other humans, with the Creator, and with the surroundings. Islamic law therefore deals with the proper use of scientific facts and not with their discovery. For example, Islam does not prevent people from designing a space craft or a laser gun, but it does lay down principles for their use.

Evidence that Islam does not interfere with scientific discovery can be seen from an incident that took place during the time of the Messenger of Allah , who once suggested to farmers that it might be better if they left palm date trees without cross-pollinating them as they did every year. The following year, farmers complained that the trees did not produce normal yield, so the Messenger of Allah said, "You know the affairs Of your world better." This means that this advice was not from Islamic text; rather it was a personal opinion of the Messenger of Allah (saw) as a man. Thus, people were left to their own scientific discovery and applications.

Also, there are no records in history to show that the Islamic Government, its scholars or learned people ever gave Islamic rulings on scientific matters, unlike the Church in Europe, which interfered with scientific discovery. In fact, many of the leading scientists were also Islamic scholars, and they did not see any contradiction between science and Islam. However, few scientists went beyond their subject matters and propagated incorrect ideas about Islamic belief, for which they were rebuked and corrected but not tortured or persecuted. There is, therefore, no contradiction between Islam and science.

 

Contributions of Muslims to Medicine

 

Medicine

- Translation of Work from Other Languages

- Knowledge of Anatomy

- Physiology

- Bacteriology

- Surgery

- Optical Work

- Operation of Cataracts

- Structure of the Eyes

- Cesarean Operation

- Development of Hospitals

- Mobile Hospitals

- Medical Schools

 

 

Centuries before the advent of Islam the Arabs had their own system of medicine in the form of herb and shrubs which was based on Chaldean medicine and on their own experience. Gradually Greek medicine attracted their attention. Harith ibn Kaldah was the first to introduce Greek medicine e to the Arabs. Khalid ibn Yazed ibn Mu'awiya had some Greek and Egyptian books translated into Arabic during the 'Umayyah period. But the science of medicine flourished during the time of the Abbasids.

Initially, the Muslims made arrangements for the translation of Greek, Indian, Persian and Chaldean medical works into Arabic, and thus received their knowledge of medicine from these nations. Before they accepted at face value the information they extracted, they conducted research in various branches in medicine to verify what they gathered from these texts.

In addition, they made many valuable new discoveries in medical theory and practical. By combining their discoveries, with the information they filtered from other sources they evolved an entirely new system of medicine.

The Arabs had a fair knowledge of anatomy as it is obvious from the names of the internal and external organs of the human and animal bodies found in the literature of pre-Islamic Arabia. When they became acquainted with the Greek anatomical descriptions, they made investigations on them, pointed out many errors in the work of their predecessors, and made many new discoveries in this field.

In order to verily the Greek anatomical ideas prevailing at that time, Yuhanna ibn Masawaih made dissections of apes supplied to him by the order of the 'Abbasi Khaleefah Mu'tasim Billah. After this verification he composed his work on anatomy. The works of some Muslim physicians and surgeons, like Tashrili al-Mansuri by Mansur ibn Muhammad, contain illustrations of human organs, which are not found in the Greek works. These illustrations also throw light on the Muslims' practical knowledge of anatomy.

In the field of physiology the work of the Muslim physicians is quite valuable. For instance, Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan 'Ali ibn Abi Hazm al Qarshi of Damascus explained the theory of the minor circulation of blood three centuries before William Harvey, who is credited with this discovery. Also, al-Qarshi suggested that food is fuel for the maintenance of the body's heat. Abu al-Faraj 'Ali ibn al-Hussein held that there are canals in the nerves through which sensations and movement are transmitted.

The contributions of Muslims in the field of bacteriology are quite revolutionary. According to Browne, Muslims were fully aware of the theory of germs. Ibn Sina was the first to state that bodily secretions are contaminated by foul foreign earthly bodies before getting the infection. Ibn Khatimah of the 14th century CE stated that man is surrounded by minute bodies which enter the human body and cause disease. His observation was made from the great plague that effected many parts of the world. Ibn al-Khatib (1313 - 1375 CE), a Spanish physician, wrote a treatise called On the Plague. His observation was:

 

"The existence of contagion is established by experience, investigation, the evidence of the senses and trustworthy reports. These facts constitute a sound argument. The fact of infection becomes clear to the investigator who notices how he who establishes contact with the afflicted gets the disease, whereas he who is not in contact remains safe, and how transmission is affected through garments, vessels and earrings."

 

Some Muslims also gave new suggestions regarding the treatment of diseases. Abu ai-Hassan, the physician of'Adud al-Dawlah" introduced the process of bleeding as a treatment of cerebral hemorrhage which is often due to blood pressure.

Al-Razi suggested nourishing food for the treatment of general weakness. The Muslim physicians were the first to use the stomach tube for the performance of gastric lavage in the case of gas poisoning. They were fully aware of the principles of phototherapy centuries before Browne Sequard, who is ascribed to discovering this method of treatment.

Sa'id ibn Bishr ibn 'Abdus suggested light foods and cold producing medicines for the treatment ofgeneral paralysis and facial paralysis. Ibn al-Wafid gave emphasis upon the treatment of diseases through food control. They discovered the treatment for epidemic jaundice and suggested a reasonable quantity of opium as a treatment of mania. For epistaxis they suggested the pouring of cold water on the head.

In the science of surgery there were also many advancements made by Muslims. They introduced the cauterizing agents in surgery. They were the first to apply the method of cooling to stop the hemorrhage, and suture wounds with silken threads.

It cannot go unnoticed that one of the most famous and eminent figure in Islamic medical field was Ibn Sina. It is said that for a thousand years he has retained his original renown as one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history, His most important medical works are the Qanun (Canon) and a treatise on cardiac drugs.

In the 11th century CE Ibn Zuhr gave a complete description of the operation of tracheotomy, which was not mentioned by the Greeks. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi invented many surgical instruments illustrated in his book Al- Tasrif. In the same book he described the methods of operations for various diseases. While describing the operations of the skull and its parts, the Muslim surgeons made a mention of operations of the uvula and nasal cavity. They also used methods of tonsillectomy and paracentesis ofthe ear drum.

The Muslim opticians did valuable and original work in the treatment of eye diseases and surgery. Many of the surgical principles formulated by Muslims are still utilized today. The method of operation of cataracts was first described by them. They knew that cataracts were due to the incapacity of the eye lens. Ibn al Haytham described the structure of the eye and gave revolutionary ideas regarding the mechanism of sight and describing various types of lenses.

The art of midwifery was highly developed by Muslims. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi invented the method of cranicolsy for the delivery of dead fetus and applied it himself. A book entitled AI-Athar al-Baqiyyah in the University of Edinburgh contains an illustration showing an Arab physician performing cesarean operation.

During the time of'Umayyah rule, the Muslims developed the institution Of hospitals. During the time of the 'Abbasi Khaleefah Harun aI-Rasheed a hospital was built in Baghdad, which was the first in the history of this city. Many new hospitals were established shortly afterwards. Some of them had their own gardens in which the medicinal plants were Cultivated. The large hospitals had medical schools attached to them. Besides such hospital there were a large number of mobile hospitals in the Muslim world.

The Muslim hospitals served as models for the hospitals established in different parts of Europe, particularly in Italy and France during the 14^th century CE due to the influence of the Crusades. The Crusaders were inspired by the magnificent hospitals of the Seljuq ruler Nur al-Dir, in Damascus and those of the Mamluk Sultan aI-Mansur Qala'un in Cairo.

Contribution of Muslims to Chemistry

 

CHEMISTRY

 

- Definition of Organic &

- Inorganic Chemistry

- Sulfur Mercury Theory of Metals

- Calcination

- Reduction

- Discoveries of various Acids Sulfuric & Nitric acids

- Preparation of Drugs

- Applied Chemistry

- Paper

Chemistry deals with the composition and properties of substances and the changes of composition they undergo. It has been divided into Inorganic and Organic. The conception of this division in modem Chemistry came from al-Razi's classification Of chemical substances into mineral, vegetable and animal.

Inorganic chemistry, which deals with the preparation and properties of the elements and their compounds, originally arose from the study of minerals and metals. Organic chemistry, which deals with carbon compounds, developed through the investigation of animal and plant Products.

Contribution of Muslims to Chemistry 

A Greek philosopher, Empedocles, held the view that all the four elements, air, water, earth and fire, were the primal elements, and that the various substances were made by their intermixing. He regarded them to be distinct and unchangeable. Aristotle considered these elements to be changeable, i.e . one kind of matter could be changed into another kind.

Jabir ibn Hayyan, a great Muslim chemist of the 8th century CE, modified the Aristotelian doctrine of the four elements, and presented the so called sulfur mercury theory of metals. According to this theory, metals duller essentially because of different proportions of sulfur and mercury in them. He also formulated the theory of geologic formation of metals. Unlike his Greek predecessors, he did not merely speculate, but performed experiments to reach certain conclusions. He recognized and stated the importance of experimentation in chemistry. He combined the theoretical knowledge of the Greeks and the practical knowledge of craftsmen, and made noteworthy advances both in the theory and practice of chemistry.

Jabir's contribution to chemistry is very great. He gave a scientific description of two principle operations of chemistry. One of them is calcination which is employed in the extraction ofmetals from their ores. The other is reduction which is employed in numerous chemical treatments. He improved upon the methods of evaporation, melting, distillation, sublimation and crystallization. These are the fundamental methods employed in the purification of chemical substances, enabling the chemist to study their properties and uses, and to prepare them. The process of distillation is particularly used for taking extracts of plant

material.

The most important discovery made by Jabir was the preparation of sulfuric acid. The importance of this discovery can be realized by the fact that in this modem age the extent of the industrial progress of a country is mostly judged by the amount of sulfuric acid used in that country. Another important acid prepared by him was nitric acid which he obtained by distilling a mixture of alum and copper sulfate. Then by dissolving ammonium chloride into this acid, he prepared aqua regia which unlike acids, could dissolve gold in it.

Jabir classified chemical substances, on the basis of some distinctive features, into bodies (gold, silver, etc.) and souls (mercury, sulfur, etc.) to make the study of their properties easier.

In the same century Jabir 's work was further advanced by al-Razi who wrote many chemical treatises, and described a number of chemical Instruments. He applied his chemical knowledge for medical purposes, thus laying the foundation of applied chemistry.

Abu Mansur distinguished between sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate. He had some knowledge of arsenious oxide, cupric oxide, antimony and other substances. He knew the toxicological effects of copper and lead compounds, the depilatory virtue of quicklime, the composition of plaster of Paris and its surgical use.

Muslim Chemistry

The great Muslim surgeon, Khalaf ibn 'Abbas al-Zahrawi wrote a great medical encyclopedia, Al-Tasrif, which contains interesting methods of preparing drugs by sublimation and distillation, but it's most important part is the surgical one.

Ibn Sina wrote a treatise on minerals that provided one of the main sources of geological knowledge, and chemistry in Western Europe until the Renaissance.

The Muslim chemists applied their chemical knowledge to a large number of industrial arts. One of them is mentioned here, which will enable the reader to estimate the extent of their knowledge of Applied Chemistry.

Paper is also featured in the pioneering works of the Muslims. Paper was invented by the Chinese who prepared it from the cocoon of the silk worm. Some specimens of Chinese paper dates back to the second century CE. The first manufacture of the paper outside China occurred in Samarqand in 757 CE. When Samarqand was captured by the Muslims, the manufacture of paper spread all over the Muslims World. By the end of the 12th century CE, there were four hundred paper mills in Fas alone . In Spain the main center of manufacturing of paper was Shatiba which remained a Muslim city until 1239 CE. Cordova was the center of the paper business in Spain.

The Muslims developed this art. They prepared paper not only from silk, but also from cotton, rags and wood. In the middle of the 10th century CE the paper industry was introduced into Spain. In Khurasan paper was made from linen. Joseph Karabacek, in one of his works, explains the process of making paper in minute detail, describing how the pulp is prepared to make sheets, washed and cleaned them, colored, polished and pasted. No text comparable to this in any other language exists from that time.

The preparation of pulp involves a large number of complicated chemical processes, which indicates the level of achievement in chemistry reached by Muslims.

The manufacture of writing paper in Spain is one of the most beneficial contributions of Muslim to Europe. Without paper the scale on which popular education in Europe developed would not have been possible. The preparation of paper from silk would have been impossible in Europe due to the lack of silk production there.

The Muslims method of producing paper from cotton could only be useful for the Europeans. After Spain the art of paper making was established in Italy in1268 CE. France owed its first paper mills to Muslim Spain. From these countries the industry spread throughout Europe.

 

Contributions of Muslim Scientist to the world of Physics

Physics

·         Force, Motion and Light

·         The balance

·         Elasticity of Air

·         Steam Bath

·         Science of Optics

·         Research in Spherical and Parabolic Mirrors

·         Research in Angles of Incidence and reflection

Muslim Scientist studied the fundamental questions of physics deeply. Ibn Sina made profound studies of such phenomena as force, motion, light heat and vacuums name few. A great progress was made in theoretical and applied mechanics.

The physicist and astronomer al-Khazini wrote a book on mechanics and hydrostatics and physics known as Kitab Mizan al Hikmah ( book of Balance of Wisdom. Umar al-Khayyam did the greatest work on the balance. Ibn Sina and Al-Razzi ( D 924CE) contributed to the theory of balance. Muslims developed science of optics. Ibn al-Haytham made a remarkable contribution towards this science. Indeed modern optics began with him. Al biruni noticed that the speed of light is immensely greater than that of light.